Toxic aquifer beneath our feet: India faces its worst groundwater crisis

India’s dependence on groundwater has only intensified in recent years. Nearly 85 per cent of rural households still rely on it for drinking, and around two-thirds of irrigation needs are met by aquifers. As extraction has risen relentlessly, the quality of groundwater continues to deteriorate at a pace that threatens public health, agriculture, and water security. The Annual Ground Water Quality Report 2025, released by the Central Ground Water Board, confirms that the crisis is no longer confined to a few states or pollutants. India is now confronting a multi-contaminant emergency, with several regions simultaneously exceeding safe limits for nitrate, fluoride, arsenic, uranium, salinity, and heavy metals.

 

The most striking finding is the presence of uranium contamination across North India. Districts in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, western Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh show concentrations far above the permissible 30 parts per billion (ppb) limit. Alarmingly, the highest uranium contamination was observed in Punjab, where 53.04 per cent of the pre-monsoon samples and 62.50 per cent of the post-monsoon samples exceeded the limit. This is accompanied by elevated nitrate levels, often driven by fertiliser overuse and agricultural runoff. Nearly 20 per cent of samples in the report exceed nitrate limits and around 8 per cent contain fluoride above the limits set by the Bureau of Indian Standards.

 

Such contamination arises from a mix of natural and anthropogenic factors. Geological formations in parts of Rajasthan and Punjab release fluoride or uranium when groundwater levels plunge. Industrial effluents, unregulated mining, and untreated sewage worsen water quality in fast-urbanising districts. Microbial contamination in urban aquifers remains high due to inadequate waste management. The report’s most worrying trend is that several villages appear on multiple contaminant lists simultaneously, indicating aquifer-level degradation. This has profound ramifications. For millions relying on borewells, exposure risks include fluorosis, nitrate poisoning, arsenic-related illnesses, and long-term carcinogenic effects linked to heavy metals and uranium. The agricultural fallout is equally concerning. Contaminated groundwater not only reduces yields but also introduces toxins into the food chain. 

State-level initiatives such as Tamil Nadu’s rooftop rainwater harvesting mandate or arsenic-mitigation initiatives in West Bengal remain inadequate. Addressing this crisis demands a coherent national groundwater health mission. Improving agricultural water practices such as crop diversification, controlled fertiliser use, and soil-moisture conservation can significantly reduce chemical leaching. Decentralised filtration systems, such as community-scale RO (reverse osmosis) and ion-exchange units, must be prioritised for high-contamination villages. Urban areas require stricter sewage-treatment norms, leak-detection systems, and industrial-discharge monitoring. Ensuring the availability of safe drinking water must be prioritised through piped water supply, potable-water kiosks, and real-time quality monitoring. Given the stark regional variation in contaminants, localised groundwater management is also essential. Empowering local governments to deploy hydrogeological assessments, create water-security plans, and manage aquifer recharge structures can anchor community participation. It is equally important to move toward well-defined groundwater rights detached from land ownership to prevent reckless extraction.