European leaders now face having to repair the relationship with Cameron after a very public row over one of the EU's top jobs ahead of a slated referendum on whether Britain should leave the EU in 2017.
Cameron forced an unprecedented vote on the issue at a high-stakes Brussels summit despite having the support of only Hungary among the other 27 EU members.
Juncker's nomination was confirmed on Twitter by Herman Van Rompuy, who heads the European Council of leaders.
The move has to be rubber-stamped in a European Parliament vote next month.
Downing Street confirmed the outcome but had no immediate reaction.
Cameron was defiant as he arrived for the summit, insisting Juncker was "the wrong person" for the role.
"I know the odds are stacked against me, but that doesn't mean you change your mind, it means you stand up for what you believe and you vote accordingly," he said.
The British leader later wrote on Twitter, "I've told EU leaders they could live to regret the new process for choosing the Commission President. I'll always stand up for UK interests."
Cameron could also "retaliate" against the nomination of Juncker, who he sees as too federalist and unable to deliver reform, by refusing to sign the conclusions.
The disagreement comes a month after anti-EU parties made sweeping gains in European elections, with outright victories for the UK Independence Party in Britain and the National Front in France.
German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Europe's most powerful leader, yesterday urged EU colleagues to "compromise" with Britain.
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