 "From Cold War era to Venezuela: A look at previous US military invasions")
In a dramatic escalation of US military activity in the Western Hemisphere, American forces executed a highly planned operation in Venezuela in the early hours of January 3, capturing President Nicolas Maduro and his wife Cilia Flores in Caracas.
The mission, called ‘Operation Absolute Resolve’, saw elite US military units, including Army Delta Force commandos supported by extensive air and cyber operations, storm Maduro’s compound at the Fuerte Tiuna military base in the capital. Maduro was transported first to the USS Iwo Jima and then to New York, where he is to face federal charges related to narcotics and terrorism.
The US administration described the mission as targeting "drug trafficking networks" allegedly tied to the Venezuelan leadership.
The operation has been widely condemned in Latin America and beyond as a breach of sovereignty and a return to US interventionist practices that shaped much of 20th-century Cold War-era politics.
But this is not the first time the US has entered another country citing national security or counter-terrorism objectives. Since the 1950s, Washington has repeatedly launched overseas military operations involving direct ground entry aimed at regime change, occupation, or territorial control.
Operation Iraqi Freedom: Iraq war (2003)
On March 20, 2003, the US-led invasion of Iraq began with the objective of removing President Saddam Hussein. The George W Bush administration framed the war as necessary to eliminate "weapons of mass destruction" (WMD) and curb terrorism threats. Subsequent investigations, however, found no evidence of active WMD programmes, and debates over intelligence failures and legal authority persist.
Operation Enduring Freedom: Afghanistan invasion (2001)
Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the US launched military operations in Afghanistan to dismantle al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban leadership that harboured the group. The US Congress passed the 'Authorization for Use of Military Force' shortly after the attacks, providing the legal basis for a campaign that lasted nearly two decades.
Operation Just Cause: Panama invasion (1989)
In December 1989, the US deployed more than 27,000 troops to Panama to oust military ruler Manuel Noriega, who was under indictment in the US for drug trafficking. The operation swiftly defeated Panamanian forces, and Noriega surrendered soon after. Washington justified the intervention as protecting US citizens and supporting democracy, though it drew sharp international criticism over civilian casualties and the scale of force used.
Operation Urgent Fury: Grenada invasion (1983)
In October 1983, nearly 7,600 US troops invaded Grenada following a coup that ousted the government. The administration said the operation aimed to protect American medical students and restore order, portraying it as a limited intervention to stabilise the island.
Operation Power Pack: Dominican Republic intervention (1965)
In April 1965, US Marines and Army personnel landed in the Dominican Republic amid a civil war, citing the need to protect American lives and prevent the spread of communism after the Cuban revolution.
The intervention proceeded without a formal declaration of war. US mediation later brokered the Act of Reconciliation in August 1965, installing Hector Garcia-Godoy as provisional president. American troops withdrew by September 1966 after elections brought Joaquin Balaguer, a US-backed conservative, to power.
Operation Pierce Arrow: Vietnam (1964–1973)
Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, the US Congress passed a sweeping resolution in 1964 authorising the president to use military force in Vietnam. Under Operation Pierce Arrow, President Lyndon B Johnson ordered air strikes against north Vietnam, marking the first major US bombing raids and a sharp escalation of the war.
The resolution was repealed in 1971 amid growing opposition and the release of the Pentagon Papers, which exposed official deception. These developments led to the 1973 War Powers Resolution, a framework now again in debate in the context of Venezuela.
Korean War (1950–1953)
The US committed large-scale forces to Korea in June 1950 after North Korea invaded the South. President Harry Truman framed the intervention as a “police action” under a United Nations mandate rather than a formal declaration of war by Congress. US ground troops entered the conflict in July, with General Douglas MacArthur commanding UN forces that included more than 300,000 US personnel at their peak.
Venezuelan intervention and US constitutional powers
Under the US Constitution, only Congress has the authority to declare war. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of introducing armed forces into hostilities and to withdraw them within 60 days without congressional authorisation.
The Venezuela operation was ordered without prior congressional authorisation or notification, raising questions about compliance with the Constitution and the War Powers Resolution. US President Donald Trump chose not to inform lawmakers in advance, citing concerns over leaks, with notification issued only after strikes began on January 3.
US Secretary of State Marco Rubio said Congress was alerted after the operation, arguing that prior notice “would have leaked”. As of January 5, no War Powers report had reportedly been filed within the mandated 48-hour window, despite demands from Democratic lawmakers.