Who is an Ayatollah? Inside the Shia clerical system shaping Iran

After Ayatollah Ali Khamenei's death, Mojtaba Khamenei became Iran's Supreme Leader despite not being an Ayatollah. Here's how the Shia clerical hierarchy works and why it matters for Iran's politics

A deadly missile strike by the United States (US) on the first day of the West Asian conflict (February 28) killed Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, leaving Iran without its Supreme Leader. After much deliberation and suspense, Mojtaba Khamenei, son of Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, was elected as the next Supreme Leader of Iran on March 9. Something missing from the new Supreme Leader’s name is the term “Ayatollah”, which raises a fundamental question: How did Mojtaba become the Supreme Leader if he is not an Ayatollah? Here’s a closer look at the concept of being an Ayatollah and how Iran has overlapped its political system with the Shia clerical hierarchy.

 

 

What does the title ‘Ayatollah’ mean in Shia Islam?

 

The Arabic phrase Ayatollah breaks down to “Ayat Allah”, which literally means “sign of God”. In Shia Islam, an Ayatollah is a high-ranking scholar of Islamic law. It refers to a cleric who has reached the level of mujtahid, someone qualified to exercise ijtihad, or independent legal reasoning.

 

In religious terms, the title is used for scholars deeply trained in Islamic jurisprudence who can interpret religious law and issue legal opinions. It is not necessary that an Ayatollah hold a political office, nor that every political office holder be an Ayatollah.

 

However, things become more complex in Iran because politics overlaps with this religious hierarchy. When the Islamic Revolution reshaped Iran in 1979, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became the first Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic. On his death in 1989, Iran’s Assembly of Experts selected Ali Khamenei (then Iran’s President) as the new Supreme Leader. Ali Khamenei was not an Ayatollah when he became the Supreme Leader, but a Hojjatoleslam (meaning proof of Islam or Authority on Islam).

 

At that time, Khamenei held the lower clerical rank of Hojjatoleslam, not Ayatollah. Despite several clerics outranking Khamenei, he was elected as the acting Supreme Leader probably due to his closeness to his predecessor, and since he was the president of Iran from 1981 to 1989, he was a known figure among the masses.

 

When originally written, the Iranian constitution required the Supreme Leader to be a marja (a very senior cleric). Soon after electing Khamenei as the acting leader, the constitution was amended in 1989 to remove the “marja” requirement, allowing a lower cleric to become Supreme Leader. Khamenei was then reconfirmed as the permanent leader.

 

What is the difference between an Ayatollah, Grand Ayatollah and Marja?

 

Is there someone ranked higher than an Ayatollah? Yes — a Grand Ayatollah.

 

A Grand Ayatollah is a very senior scholar in Shia Islam. Additionally, there is a position called marja, which means “source of emulation”. A marja is a scholar whom believers follow for religious rulings and spiritual guidance.

 

A Grand Ayatollah may have the stature to act as a marja for large numbers of followers, sometimes across countries. For instance, a Shia Muslim in India may choose to follow a Grand Ayatollah based in Iran or Iraq.

 

Iran today has several Grand Ayatollahs recognised across the Shia world.

 

What powers are religious and what powers are political?

 

In Shia Islam, a senior Ayatollah can teach, preach, issue legal opinions, supervise seminaries and guide followers. A marja or Grand Ayatollah has a wider influence because followers voluntarily adopt their rulings in matters of law and worship.

 

However, an Ayatollah is not the equivalent of a pope. He does not command all Shias globally because Shia Islam is highly decentralised.

 

There are often several senior Ayatollahs and multiple maraji alive at the same time, with followers across Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, the Gulf, South Asia, Europe and North America.

 

How does a cleric rise through the Shia hierarchy?

 

The typical clerical hierarchy includes:

 

• Talabeh: seminary student
• Hojjatoleslam: mid-ranking cleric
• Ayatollah: senior cleric, usually a recognised mujtahid
• Grand Ayatollah (Ayatollah al-Uzma): very senior scholar
• Marja al-taqlid: “source of emulation,” the highest practical authority for lay followers

 

To become an Ayatollah, a cleric usually requires several elements:

 

Long seminary formation: It can take decades. A cleric studies Arabic, the Quran, hadith, jurisprudence, legal theory, theology, logic and philosophy.

 

Recognition as a mujtahid: A mujtahid is someone qualified to perform ijtihad, or independent reasoning in Islamic law.

 

A scholarly reputation: Because the Shia system is decentralised, reputation is crucial. Scholars typically teach advanced classes, publish scholarly work, issue legal opinions and attract students.

 

Public and clerical recognition: A cleric is regarded as an Ayatollah when the seminary community begins treating him as one. The title became more widely used during the twentieth century and has expanded over time.

 

To become a marja, however, a scholar must be recognised as one of the most learned jurists, with broad acceptance among believers who choose him as their source of emulation.

 

Is Mojtaba Khamenei an Ayatollah?

 

No. Mojtaba Khamenei currently holds the clerical rank of Hojjatoleslam rather than Ayatollah. However, observers say his status could be elevated in the future. Several Iranian media outlets are already using the title Ayatollah to address Mojtaba Khamenei.

 

Why does Iran’s Supreme Leader come from this clerical system?

 

Iran’s constitution states that while the Hidden Imam is absent, the country should be led by a just and learned Islamic jurist.

 

This principle appears in Article 5 of the Constitution. Articles 107 and 109 explain that the Supreme Leader is chosen by the Assembly of Experts from among qualified religious scholars.

 

These scholars must possess deep religious knowledge along with qualities such as justice, political judgement, courage and administrative ability.

 

This system is known as velayat-e faqih, meaning the guardianship or rule of the Islamic jurist. The concept was developed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and became the foundation of Iran’s political structure after the 1979 revolution.

 

In practice, this means:

 

The Supreme Leader is a jurist-cleric selected by the Assembly of Experts and the constitution grants the position sweeping authority over the armed forces, major appointments and key state policies.

 

Why do Najaf and Qom matter in Shia religious politics?

 

Najaf in Iraq is one of the oldest centres of Shia scholarship. Historically, clerics from Najaf tended to guide society on religious and moral matters while avoiding direct involvement in state governance.

 

In contrast, after the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the Iranian city of Qom became closely tied to political authority. It emerged as the most influential centre of Shia scholarship within Iran and plays a major role in shaping the country’s religious and political thinking.

 

Why is Iran’s model not universal across the Shia world?

 

Iran’s system combines Shia clerical authority with state power. In most other Shia communities, religion and politics remain more separate.

 

An Ayatollah is primarily a senior religious scholar trained in Islamic law and theology. Iran’s system transformed this clerical authority into political leadership, whereas in many other Shia societies, Ayatollahs continue to function mainly as religious guides rather than political rulers.